A Tradition Renewed

 

A 2nd Century Roman Bulla

This past week, I had to attend the christening of a friend’s child. Although I had several weeks notice, I waited until the last minute to find the perfect gift for the child and decided to turn to ancient history for ideas. I was amazed at what I learned about the role of children in ancient Roman society, and ultimately decided upon a “Bulla”, which was a protective amulet given to all children at birth. Even more amazing is that I found an affordable antiquity from a reputable dealer, and now this child has a genuine 2nd century ancient roman charm that will protect him until he reaches manhood, and will then be passed down to his own children.

Far more important to the Romans than the day of birth of a child, (the dies lustricus), they day when the baby was to be named, was a joyous occasion. The custom of handing down names to children was of great importance to Romans and their families.

The praenomen was the given first name. In 100 BC there were only about 18 known to be commonly used. The gentile second name, or nomen, referred to the gens, or clan, of the child’s family. The cognomen was the third name given the newborn, referring to the family branch. This was originally utilized as a nickname (e.g., Scipio Africanus, in reference to his conquest of Hannibal at Zama).

On the day of dies lustricus, crepundia, or tiny metal trinkets, were strung around the baby’s neck by the present guests. The clinking noise they made amused the child, similar to a rattle. In addition, on this day the child, male or female, was given a bulla (pictured above).  This was an elaborate locket made of gold for the wealthy and leather for the poor. It contained charms to ward off the power of the evil numina, and was presented to the child on the day of birth. A boy removed his bulla only after he received his toga virilis, signifying his Roman citizenship. A girl only removed hers on her wedding day.

Children of wealthy families in ancient Rome usually started school when they were seven years old. Boys stayed at school longer than girls and learned different things. For example, girls who went to school learned how to spin, weave, cook, and clean so they would be able to care for a house when they were married. Girls of poor families learned all of these things at home since they could not afford to go to school. Almost all boys, except for those of very poor families went to school to learn how to read, write in Latin and Greek, do math, and make speeches. These skills were necessary for boys who wished to get a job in the government.

When girls were 14 years old, their fathers planned a marriage for them. When they married the man chosen by their father, the girls left their house to live with their new husband and his family. Boys were not allowed to marry until they were 15 years old. At this time, they were also allowed to vote and get a job.

The usage of amulets seems universal stemming from the human desire for protection. The existence seems to extend from the cave dwellers to the present. As objects they come and go with fashion, taking on different designs and shapes, but their purpose remains the same. No matter how civilized a culture may be, the amulets are present.

The term amulet is derived from either the Latin word amuletum or the old Latin term amoletum which means, “means of defense.” Pliny, the Roman naturalist, described three types of amulets: those which offered protection against trouble and adversity; those which provided a medical or prophylatic treatment; and substances used as medicine.

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Anything for love?

An Ancient Etruscan Love Spell

Some people will do anything for love. Shakespeare’s ‘Romeo and Juliet’ died for it. Wars have been fought in its name, kingdoms have been won or lost on its account, and many a family has been either blessed or cursed because of a union of love. The ancient Etruscans certainly went through a lot of trouble to find that perfect mate. Last night, I had dinner with a couple who have been unbelievably happy together for as long as I’ve known them. After almost thirty years, they still behave like newlyweds and have shown a bond of trust and caring that is seldom seen these days. When I had the opportunity, I asked if they had a secret.

The happy gentleman said the secret was to be lucky enough to find a woman as kind, loving and courageous as his wife, which he simply attributed to chance. His wife remained silent (at least until I got her alone while her husband was hailing a taxi).

I repeated my question to her alone this time, hoping to hear something really juicy – perhaps a tale of a wild and twisted affair with an exotic bohemian paramour, much like Harold Pinter wrote about in his extraordinary play,  “The Lover”. Instead, she said she would email me in the morning with her secret which she has been silent about since she discovered it.

Early this morning, the email arrived. “The secret” was an ancient Etruscan spell designed to attract the perfect mate, which had been updated first in the 18th century and later in the early 20th by her own grandmother. She swears that this ‘love spell’ really worked, and has never shared it with anyone, including her husband. Today, I share it with you.

The origins of this love spell are obscure, but there is a litany in archaic Italian of which I have provided an English translation. It is a ritual that requires a bit of effort and a lot of herbal materials as well as a profound belief in its success. Otherwise (according to my friend), its nothing more than empty words. The materials can be obtained readily in any food store, herb market or metaphysical supply store.

The courage to actually do this? Thats up to you….

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Sagre di Ottobre

Sagre are food festivals or local fairs that celebrate the bounty of the earth, or food that is typically harvested at the time of the festival. Sagre can be quite specific. They can celebrate a type of onion or a specific dish or preparation. You generally sit at long comunal tables and the food is usually brought to you. The food at a Sagre costs much less than it does in a restaurant, and many times the profits go to some local charity of sports team. Larger sagre (the plural of sagra) may feature musical bands and perhaps a competition of some sort, like a bike race.

How do you find out about sagre when you’re in Italy? You drive or walk around a small town. You’ll probably need a car to attend a sagra, as most of them are held in small,out of the way towns or villages, usually in the main piazza. When you drive through the Italian countryside, you’ll see colorful posters posted at intersections indicating the “Sagra di ____”, with the dates and times large enough to be read from a passing car. Attending a sagra is a way to get a taste of Italian country life. You order food to be cooked by locals with a passion for the local cuisine, then sit at communal tables to eat.

Since ancient times,

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The Cimaruta

The Cimaruta is an very old charm rooted in Italian folklore.  It is used for protection from the bad luck or the evil eye. Cimaruta or cima di ruta means ’spring of rue’ and the branches of the charm are the branches of that most sacred plant. The herb rue (Ruta graveolens) is sometimes called Herb of Grace; and rue and vervain are two plants most pleasing to the goddess Diana. In Stregheria, rue is used in rituals to represent the power of the God. Vervain was the Roman word for altar plants used for spiritual purification, and Druids, too, washed their altars with a flower infusion and used vervain in their lustral water for visions.

The Cimaruta was often placed upon the breasts of infants as a protection. Before it became popular among the common people, it was used by the various Strega families as a sign of membership.  The primary symbols are the moon, serpent, and key.  These represent the goddess in her triple form as Hecate (the key), Diana (the moon) and Proserpina (the serpent).  This ancient grouping of the goddess appears in the ancient writings of such figures as Lucan.  Ovid and Horace also feature the goddess Diana in their writings related to witchcraft.:

1. Hand (mano fica position) – magic, to ward off the ‘evil eye’

2. Fish – Phallic/Fertility/Abundance

3. Crescent- symbolizes both the cresent moon, and the horns of the god.

4. Key- access to Power, opening of Portals, secret knowledge

5. Vervain flower blossom- Protection

Other charms may also be found within the Cimaruta: dolphin, serpent, cock, sword, crow and a sprig of rue. The Cimaruta is always made of silver and is sometimes double sided. Each branch ends in a hand. The amulet was designed to represent the waxing and waning crescents and therefore the duality of the Moon’s power.

Folkorist Frederick Elsworthy, states that the key traditionally forms a heart symbol on the handle.  He associates the key with Diana and the goddess Jana, the gatekeeper (consort of Janus).   Elworthy also notes that the key is a traditional symbol of Hecate-Proserpine.   He goes on to mention that in Neapolitan dialect the word janara means a witch (in Italian, strega).

Elworthy mentions the rooster head on the traditional cimaruta, and he gives its meaning as vigilance.  The rooster, says Elworthy, is the “watchful guardian” (and the author notes this symbolism in connection with the custom of placing the cimaruta charm with an infant).

The dagger, says Elworthy, represents the “dart of Diana Venetrix ” and the fish symbolizes the connection to Diana-Proserpina (symbolized in ancient art by the dolphin).  Elworthy identifies the flower on the cimaruta charm as a “lotus” and he associates it with Isis and Diana.  However, in this one area Elworthy is incorrect.  The flower is actually a vervain blossom, which in Italian lore is connected to fairy lore (and folklorist Charles Leland refers to Diana as the queen of the fairies).

In closing here is an excerpt from Elworthy.  Noteworthy is his mention of the survival of the worship of Diana in Italy into modern times:

“Of all the many charms combined in the Cimaruta we find on close study that there is scarcely one which may not directly or indirectly be considered as connected with Diana, the goddess of infants, worshipped today by Neapolitans as zealously as ever she was in old times by the men of Ephesus and Rome; the only change is in her name.  Many a Demetrius, who still makes her silver shrines, flourishes near the Piazza Margherrita, though nowadays he knows her only as La Madonna; she is, however, his goddess, his ‘regina del Cielo, della terra, del parto, ed anche del Inferna’

The Cimaruta is an very old charm rooted in Italian folklore. It is used for protection from the bad luck or the evil eye. Cimaruta or cima di ruta means ’spring of rue’ and the branches of the charm are the branches of that most sacred plant. The herb rue (Ruta graveolens) is sometimes called Herb of Grace; and rue and vervain are two plants most pleasing to the goddess Diana. In Stregheria, rue is used in rituals to represent the power of the God. Vervain was the Roman word for altar plants used for spiritual purification, and Druids, too, washed their altars with a flower infusion and used vervain in their lustral water for visions.

The Cimaruta was often placed upon the breasts of infants as a protection. Before it became popular among the common people, it was used by the various Strega families as a sign of membership.  The primary symbols are the moon, serpent, and key.  These represent the goddess in her triple form as Hecate (the key), Diana (the moon) and Proserpina (the serpent).  This ancient grouping of the goddess appears in the ancient writings of such figures as Lucan.  Ovid and Horace also feature the goddess Diana in their writings related to witchcraft.:

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Back to Basics

Back to Basics

Early Italy created its calendar year based on the agrarian wheel of the year. Autumn is the time of harvest, where the fields are put to bed for the winter.  Our ancestors used this time to teach and learn, because before you know it, Spring would be here and it would be time again to till the fields.

Considering that most early Italians were not literate, the question is “What did they learn during the dormant season?”  The answer lies in the secrets of the Strega; the early Italian mystics and healers who still practice their craft today in secret.  It is called Stregheria or Strega, and is one of the most interesting traditions I’ve ever found.

Strega is very old and predates the Roman Pantheon since most of its deities are Etruscan and from native tribes and ancestor worship in Italy, Sicily, Sardinia and surrounding islands. The first, primal force is known as Uni–yes, that’s right–universe comes from this name. She is the all consuming mother–the primal womb. From this womb came the Grigori-the Ancient Ones-the watchtowers, those here time before time. The Grigori have leaders; the ones a Streghe calls to open the gates of power in each direction.

In the North, we call Tago-he is the guardian of the North and represents the element of Earth. He is calm, steady, strong and brings stability to the circle/ritual. The North is masculine and the color is green or brown.

In The East, we call Alpena-she is the guardian of the East and represents the element of Air. She is soft, ethereal, thoughtful, and brings logic and order to the circle/ritual. The East is Feminine and the color is white or yellow.

In the South, we call Settrano-he is the guardian of the South and represents the element of Fire. He is passionate, impulsive, can be violent, and is the one element one must be careful with. The South is masculine and the color is red or orange.

In the West, we call Meana-she is the guardian of the West and represents the element of Water. She is emotional, compassionate, and also is the portal of the underworld. She represents the Crone as Meana/Umbria.

In Strega, there are three types of practitioners:  the Tannic, Jannic, and Fannic. Each one specializes in a particular adept in Stregheria. These traditions are in Italian, mainstream Strega. Sicilian Strega does not have these and much is combined into the other. In other words, Sicilian Streghe do it all.

The Tradition of The Streghe of Tana

In Tuscany, Northern Italy and Genoa, as well as the middle regions of Italy, usually have the Tannic Streghe. These are the ones who specialize in moon magic and spell craft. The are the witches of legends and the evil eye is their specialty. The use olive oil, keys, scissors, herbs (particularly rue. and fava beans) and are the keepers of the Mythos of Aradia. Aradia, born August 13, 1313, revived the old religion in these regions. She is revered as” La Bella Pilgrima,” and is considered a Goddess for these practitioners. The Goddess Diana’s Name is Tana and the God’s name is Tanus.

The Tradition of the Streghe of Jana

The Strega of Jana and her consort Janus can be found in the middle part of Italy in Latium and areas around Rome. They are astrologers and use the stars to create spells, divine the future and journey into the other worlds. They are the Shamans and have much in common with Native American Shamans. Janus, the Two faced God, was incorporated directly into the Roman Pantheon as well as the month of January. They are the diviners–tarot, runes, stones, beans, seeds and mysterious configurations and types of all kinds of divination are their realms.

The Tradition of the Streghe of Fana

The Strega of Fana and her consort Faunus are in the southern part of Italy and Sardinia. The lines of each tradition are not tightly drawn and one tradition may use, consult, and practice any one or all of the others. Faunus is linked with Pan and suffered the same fate as Diana and Artemis. These streghe are the caretakers of the earth and use lei lines, power spots, large megalith stones, ruins, and other magnetic phenomena of the earth. They are the herbalists of Strega although all traditions have basic knowledge of herbs for spell use and for healing, these witches are the wise women of the village. They are the doctors and consult with Jannic cults on the use of herbs for physical healing.

The Sicilian Tradition

Sicily deserves a paper all Her own. She is the most mysterious of all-and kept in strict secrecy. One thing I can say, There is no such thing as one “Sicilian Tradition.” Every family has its own rituals, spells, initiation ceremonies, some with degrees and some not. I cannot answer for all Sicilians. I can only answer for the one family that I have come to know personally. They are an old family, coming  from the town of Port Embeclo on the very southern wide part of Sicily. The Matriarch’s family came from Benevento and her father from Sardinia and Tuscany. Their blood line is very mixed with French, Gypsy, Italian and Sicilian blood lines. When I visited Italy and Sicily, I found grave markers with their family names engraved with the pentacle and the sign of the Walnut tree, In Sicily the Cimaruta (pictured) and pentacle, vines of rue and fennel engraved on the tombstones and more. Unfortunately, no one would speak of these symbols, and I am still slowly uncovering many secrets of the Sicilian Tradition.

late 19th Century Cimaruta Charm

Early Italy created its calendar year based on the agrarian wheel of the year. Autumn is the time of harvest, where the fields are put to bed for the winter.  Our ancestors used this time to teach and learn, because before you know it, Spring would be here and it would be time again to till the fields.

Considering that most early Italians were not literate, the question is “What did they learn during the dormant season?”  The answer lies in the secrets of the Strega; the early Italian mystics and healers who still practice their craft today in secret.  It is called Stregheria or Strega, and is one of the most interesting traditions I’ve ever found.

Strega is very old and predates the Roman Pantheon since most of its deities are Etruscan and from native tribes and ancestor worship in Italy, Sicily, Sardinia and surrounding islands. The first, primal force is known as Uni–yes, that’s right–universe comes from this name. She is the all consuming mother–the primal womb. From this womb came the Grigori-the Ancient Ones-the watchtowers, those here time before time. The Grigori have leaders; the ones a Streghe calls to open the gates of power in each direction.

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“Nothing Worse than Marriage”

There are records of many Romans proclaiming that there was nothing worse than marriage, and that, were it not for the necessity to produce children, no one would ever get married. A rich wife was a tyrant and a poor one would spend all your money. So the only Romans who married were those who could not avoid it, men burdened with the responsibility of continuing the family line or those who decided to found one.
Marriage really could either bring a wife into the household following a proper marriage ritual, or merely involved the couple living under the same roof after the signature of a contract. The style of marriage was not really important. It’s function was quite simple; to change a woman’s status from that of a young maid (virgo) to that of a mother (mater). The marriage itself was in fact not regarded as having been fully consummated until the first child was born in the house. Marriage to the Romans was about procreation and nothing else, so it was essential that children should be born inside the house.
There were two types of marriage: The more conventional -and more ancient form – was a marriage by which the woman became a member of the husband’s family. She lost her family rights of inheritance of her old family and gained them with her new one. She now was subject to the authority of her husband. This was the traditional form of marriage, (conventio in manum).
Alternatively there was the free marriage (sine manu). In this arrangement the wife remained a member of her original family. She stayed under the authority of her father and kept her family rights of inheritance with her old family, though didn’t gain any with the new family. This was not a traditional form of marriage and it could simply be annulled by the separation of the couple. It was sufficient for the husband to tell his wife, either in person, or by letter, or by sending a slave that the marriage was at an end, for the free marriage to annulled. However, the free marriage was generally conducted by marriages between noble households, and hence it was unlikely that one side would so openly insult the other. Far more the separation would be conducted upon agreement of both sides.

The bride’s age varied greatly depending on wether it was her first marriage. Roman girls tended to marry very young, though the law prohibited them from marrying below the age of twelve. In noble families the wedding was often preceded by a lengthy engagement in order to bring the two families closer together. Prior to the wedding the young bride-to-be might go to live with her future husband in his house. The day of a wedding was chosen with great care, to prevent it falling onto a day of bad omens. The superstitious Romans were eager to assure that no bad luck should befall a couple for a a carelessly chosen date for their marriage. May for example was seen as a unlucky month, whilst the second half of June was seen as an ideal setting.
On the evening before her marriage the bride would sacrifice her childhood toys to the lares, the family spirits. The wedding ceremony saw the bride prepared in her house being disguised under a fire coloured veil (flammeum) and dressed in simple white dress, gathered by a belt, tied in a special knot (nodus herculeus) which the groom would have to untie. This she would wear instead of the toga praetexta the garment for girls (as well as boys) she had worn until then.

Throughout the ceremony the bride was accompanied by the pronuba, a matron who had only married once. The ceremony began with a sacrifice and the auspices being taken. After the sacrifice the tabulae nuptiales (marriage contract) was signed, normally in the presence of ten witnesses. Then the pronuba took the right hands of the couple and placed them in each other. This was the most important moment of the ceremony, the silent exchange of vows between the couple. The ceremonial over, it was time for the wedding banquet (cena nuptialis).
At the end of the wedding banquet, bringing together the relatives of both families, the bride groom, wresting the bride from her mother’s arms , would pretend to abduct her while she would pretend to resist. This was done traditionally in memory of the rape of the Sabine women. A procession would then lead the young girl to the husband’s house. The bride would would accompanied by three boys. Two of the boys held her by the hand, the third walked ahead of her, carrying a torch which had been lit at the fire of the hearth of the bride’s home. The charred remains of the torch were a symbol of good luck and were distributed among the guests, just as today the bride’s bouquet is thrown into the crowd.

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The Role of Women

 

Fourth Century AD mosaic from Villa del Casale, Sicily, of female athletes receiving their victory awards

The Romans believed that all women should be under the control of a guardian, who might be the father, husband, or a male relative, or someone appointed by the will of the father or husband, or by an official of the state. The only exceptions up until the time of Augustus were the six vestal virgins; after Augustus the rule was relaxed in cases of freeborn women who had had three children and freedwomen who had had four, provided that there was no husband or father to exercise control. It was customary for marriages to be arranged, and for the size of the dowry to match the social standing of the prospective bridegroom.

 

Mid second century BC urn showing Augustus' marriage ceremony

There were several ways of celebrating a marriage, of which the simplest involved the consent of both parties, without rites or ceremony. There were three others, each giving the husband legal power over his wife:

 

1. 

   2nd Century gold betrothal ring showing a couple clasping right hands

   By cohabiting for a year without the woman being absent for a total of three nights.

2. By a symbolic form of purchase, in the presence of a holder of a pair of scales and five witnesses.
3. By full ritual, in the presence of the pontifex maximus.

 

After the second century AD a different kind of ritual emerged, which began with a formal betrothal, at which the prospective bride slipped a gold ring onto finger now known as the “wedding finger” in the presence of the guests. For the marriage ceremony itself she wore a veil of flaming orange-red, surmounted by a simple wreath of blossom.

Women in Roman times, though discriminated against, and subjected to abuse by poets such as Horace and Juvenal, were still capable of standing up for themselves when aroused. One of the most contentious pieces of Roman legislation was the Oppian Law, brought in on the proposal of the tribune Gaius Oppius after the defeat by Hannibal at Cannae in 216 BC with the object of reducing spending on luxury goods. Among its conditions were that no woman should possess more than half an ounce of gold, wear a dress dyed in a variety of colours, or ride in a horse-drawn carriage in a city or town or within a mile of it except on holy day.

In 195 BC two of the tribunes of the people proposed to the tribal assembly that the law should be repealed; two others, Marcus and Publius Junius Brutus, announced that they would veto the repeal.

While the heated debate was going on, women rushed out of their houses and blocked the streets and entrances to the forum, protesting that at a time of prosperity they too should be restored to their former splendour. The next day, joined by others from the suburbs, they mass-picketed the homes of the two Brutuses, and only agreed to cease demonstrating if the veto was withdrawn. This was done, and the motion to rescind the law was carried unanimously.

 

Fourth-century AD mosaic from Villa del Casale, Sicily, depicting prostitute with a client. It would appear that those whose only or principal source of income came from this trade were required to register with the aedile

In such a restricted environment it is not surprising that there seem to have been a comparatively small number of them in professional jobs. There are, however, records of a few female doctors, clerks, and secretaries: also hairdressers, for whom training was obligatory, teachers, and the occasional fishmonger, vegetable seller, dressmaker, and wool or silk merchant.

 

Wall painting from the “Villa of the Mysteries”, Pompeii, depicting woman with scroll and a child reading.

Women were expected to possess to a considerable degree that essential Roman quality of pietas, which is untranslatable except as a combination of duty, devotion, and loyalty, especially to the gods, and to one’s parents, husband, relations, and nation. None displayed it more sublimely than Pompeia Paulina, young wife of the aged Seneca, when Nero’s emissary came to order him to commit suicide, while he was at dinner.

 

Paulina insisted on dying with him, and they sliced open the veins in their arms with a single stroke of the knife. That was not, however, the end of the story. Because of Seneca’s age and the spareness of his frame, his blood was so sluggish that he had to cut open the veins in his legs, too. After persuading Paulina, who was streaming with her own blood, to retire to another room, he dictated a long statement to his secretaries, and then ordered his doctor to give him poison. When this did not do the trick, he had himself lifted into a hot bath and was asphyxiated by the steam.

 

 

Nero and Agrippina

Meanwhile Nero, hearing what had happened and being unwilling to accept responsibility for Paulina’s death, gave orders for her to be revived. While soldiers stood over them, her staff bandaged her arms and staunched the bleeding. She lived on, faithful to her husband’s memory, the pallor of her face and body testifying to the extent to which her soul had been destroyed.

Certainly women were able to attain a degree of education and to absorb and reflect the culture of the times. Some even had some fun, as well as influence: notably Sempronia, whom Catiline earmarked as a potential recruit to his cause in 63 BC. She was of excellent family, married with children, and beautiful. She had studied Greek and Latin literature, she sang to her own accompaniment on the lyre, she danced gracefully. She wrote poetry, she was witty, she was charming, and she was a marvellous conversationalist. She was also promiscuous, broke promises, reneged on debts, and was an accessory to murder.

 

Agrippina

Even more politically aware were the two imperial consorts Livia (58 BC – AD 29), wife of Augustus and mother of Tiberius, and Agrippina the Younger (AD 15 – 59), wife of Claudius and mother of Nero — and Tacitus implies that both poisoned their husbands. Whether or not suggestions of strings of other murders and, in the case of Agrippina, of lovers too, including her brother and her own son, are justified, both women undoubtedly manipulated the system to ensure that their sons by an earlier marriage became emperor, and both sons grew actively to demonstrate distaste for their mothers.

Livia had a distinguished aristocratic pedigree. At 19, however, and six months pregnant, she was forced to divorce, or be divorced by, her husband, in order to marry Octavian, who had conveniently divorced his own wife. After they had faced down the public outcry at the circumstances of their marriage, the union, during which she received unprecedented honours, lasted for 53 years.

 

First-century AD wall painting from Pompeii of a woman playing the lyre in the company of her lover, while a woman stands by

 

 

Though they had no children (a premature baby died), she was in other respects a traditional and successful Roman upper-class wife who even spun and wove material for her husband’s clothes. And as a traditional Roman wife, she organized the household. She also organized much else besides: she received imperial clients and provincial embassies, commissioned public buildings and dedicated them in her name, established charities, presided at banquets, and is said to have interceded on behalf of a man accused of plotting against Augustus. As a good wife should, she helped her husband with his correspondence, and altogether eased his imperial burden, while undoubtedly increasing her own influence. This unprecedented crossing of the boundary between private and public spheres made ancient historians such as Tacitus and Cassius Dio uneasy, and may be the reason for their hostility. But there had never been a Roman empress before, and someone had to lay down some ground rules.

Livia filled the position very well indeed, as is suggested by Augustus’s public recognition of her role. She was finally deified in AD 42, at the instigation of her grandson Claudius.

Claudius may have had Livia’s role in public affairs in mind when he decided to marry his 34-year-old niece Agrippina — he was then 59. As with Livia, much of what we know about her comes from historians to whom the notion of a woman wielding political clout was anathema.

In AD 50, her son was formally adopted by Claudius and took the name Nero. Being three years older than Claudius’s son Britannicus, he took precedence over his stepbrother, now his brother by adoption. If Agrippina was responsible for Claudius’s death in AD 54, then it may have been because her husband’s unpredictable nature made her position precarious, and because she wanted to exercise full control while Nero was still too young to do so himself.

 

Livia holding a bust of the deified Augustus

Not only was she now the widow of a god, but in the east she was herself hailed as divine. She was, in effect, regent for her teenage son, but he was influenced still by Burrus and Seneca. Several factors, or a combination of them, have been suggested for Nero deciding, or being persuaded, to get rid of her. Nero revelled in the power that his new position gave him, and it may be that his tutors realized that the activities of Agrippina were bad for the state. Agrippina wished to be seen to be in control. In the time of Claudius, she had been used to attending meetings with foreign diplomats, but sat apart from the emperor. Now, on one occasion, it was clear as she entered the hall that she intended to sit beside Nero on the platform. Seneca managed, by quick thinking, to circumvent a major lapse in protocol, by whispering to Nero to rise and go to meet her.

Agrippina interfered, too, in the emperor’s emotional entanglements. Nero was also psychotic about his personal safety, and it is more than likely that fear motivated him to take the actions he did. So, after several botched attempts, the murder was contrived of a woman with a most remarkable curriculum vitae: to successive Roman emperors she was respectively great-granddaughter, granddaughter (by adoption), sister, wife (also niece), and mother.

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That Old Black Magic

The Cathedral of Reggio Emilia

It seems that I’m not the only one “breathing new life into ancient customs” these days.  A recent archaeological discovery has found the remains of a wealthy Roman citizen’s home with the floor of the atrium almost perfectly preserved.  The Atrium was the private sanctuary of Pagan Romans, which contained the lararium.  The lararium was a shrine to the guardian spirits of the Roman household. Family members performed daily rituals at this shrine to guarantee the protection of these domestic spirits, the most significant of which were the lares.

 

 

A recently excavated Lararium

 

Paganism has a wider influence on our lives than we might care to think.  Many of today’s customs came into Christianity through Constantine who, in 325 AD, began the process of converting the official religion of Roman Empire from Paganism to Christianity. Take for example, the simple wedding ring. This has profound Pagan origins yet is considered an essential part of the wedding ceremony by many Christians.  Since ancient times, marriages have been symbolised by the wearing of a ring. Usually worn by the wife, they were given as a token of possession. Once ringed, she was no longer available to circulate amongst other men. The ring represents neither everlasting love nor bondage; rather it’s a token stemming from ancient magic.  The unbroken circle is an age-old symbol of eternity. It’s easy to see why such an ancient symbol should be incorporated into a wedding ceremony, when ‘everlasting love’ is the hope of the couple, their families and friends. 

On February 3, 2009, A Roman mosaic floor filled with scenes depicting pagan rites and oriental gods has emerged from the ground of a Catholic church in Italy.  The mosaic pavement, which measures 13 square meters (140 square feet) and dates to the fourth century A.D., was unearthed at a depth of about 4 meters (13 feet) below the the ground’s surface during archaeological investigations in the crypt of the Cathedral of Reggio Emilia, in central-northern Italy.  

 

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A Lararium

 

Renata Curina, the archaeologist in charge of the dig said: “The size and design of the mosaic pavement suggest that it formed the floor of a huge room. We believe this was the residence of a wealthy Roman”.  The church was built on top of preexisting building structures. This is rather normal in Reggio Emilia. We can see that little care was taken of the mosaic floor, since pillars are built on top of it,” Curina said.  Made up of small tesserae — tiny tiles — of different materials, which include colored stones, glass cameos and golden leaves, the intricate mosaic floor features geometric designs of circles and squares with little figures of dancers, flowers and birds such as magpies and peacocks. 

 

According to Luigi Malnati, superintendent of archaeological heritage in Emilia Romagna, “This is one of the most important and interesting mosaics in northern Italy. It stands out for its size, design and refined technique”. Such pagan scenes must have been pieced together before 380 A.D., the year when the emperor Theodosius proclaimed Christianity the state religion. Indeed, a series of decrees in 391-392 A.D. banned and punished pagan cult practices within the empire. 

 

Roger Ling, a professor of classical art and archaeology at the University of Manchester, U.K., and the author of “Ancient Mosaics,” has called it  “a sensational discovery.”  The fact that depictions of pagan gods had lain for hundreds of years just a few meters under the cathedral doesn’t come too much as a surprise, according to the archaeologist.

 

 

What makes the mosaic unique, however, are three large mythological scenes. “So far all scenes show naked figures. We are still trying to figure out their meaning. I believe that more clues might come to light as we continue to dig,” Curina said.  The scenes are rather unusual. One shows a naked man falling into someone’s arms, another displays two naked figures — a man and a woman — wearing jewels. The woman holds a just caught fish, while the man holds two live ducks.  Another extraordinary scene shows a naked man wearing an ivy crown and holding a lotus flower in his right hand.  In his left hand, the mysterious character holds a lituus. This is a crooked cane which in ancient Rome was used by the augurs as a cult instrument. The cane was regarded as a symbol of a priestly group. 

 

 

The augurs were religious officials who observed natural signs, such as the flight of birds, in order to interpret them as indications of divine approval or disapproval. “Symbols such as the lotus flower and the ivy crown might hint that this was a private room dedicated to the cult of oriental gods,” Curina said.

 

Once fully detached and restored, the mosaic will be put on display at a local museu

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The Mugello Valley: Keeper of the Medici Secrets

Villa Medicea di Cafaggiolo, Giusto Utens, 1599

Only a few miles from Florence, we can find traces of history worthy of a great European capital. Along the river Sieve centers of ancient origins and complex foundation rise at close distances. Important Etruscan areas became a place of settlements and villages in Roman times. The Mediaeval Lordships – the Guidi and the Ubaldini- were soon in competition with the Commune of Florence which was expanding and in search of “new lands”.

The Medici family originated from Mugello, a valley about 20-30 miles north of Florence, toward Bologna and the Padan plains.  The powerful Medici loved Mugello, and left a great number of signs of their passage, such as wonderful villas. Also the landscape bears their mark in the rational organization of cultivations, in woods geometrical disposition, in water canalization. Their taste is visible in the buildings, in the proportion of farmhouses, villas and pievi and in the harmonic distribution of the installations.

North of Florence, in the Mugello, lies an ancient castle built in the 14th-century that is considered to be one of the great masterpieces of Renaissance architecture. The Castle of Cafaggiolo

Castello Cafaggiolo Today

was a Medicean residence, used by the powerful tuscan family to give parties, balls and to receive illustrious guests. Originally it was a fortress with two towers, a drawbridge, boundary walls and a moat. It was one of the oldest and most favored of the Medici family estates, having been in the possession of the family since the 14th century, when it was owned by Averardo de’ Medici.

Averardo’s son, Giovanni di Bicci de’ Medici, is considered to be the founder of the Medici dynasty.  The villa was reconstructed following designs of the eminent Renaissance architect Michelozzo in 1452, becoming a meeting place for some of the greatest intellectuals of the Italian Renaissance. The villa is located in the Mugello region, the area which was the homeland of the Medici. Although by no means the grandest or largest of their many houses, they visited it often: as a consequence, the villa was the scene of many momentous events in the history of the dynasty, ranging from the reception of Medici brides to a famous murder.

PIETRO DE MEDICI

In 1576, the castle was the scene of the murder of a Medici wife. Neglected by her husband, Eleonora di Garzia di Toledo, the wife of Pietro de’ Medici, had been conducting an illicit love affair with Bernardino Antinori, a young nobleman. Their affair came to light when Antinori killed a fellow noble, Francesco Ginori, in self-defense. Antinori confessed to his crime and was banished to Elba by Eleonora’s brother-in-law, Francesco I de’ Medici, Grand Duke of Tuscany.

From Elba, Antinori recklessly sent love letters to Eleonora. These letters fell into the hands of the Grand Duke, who promptly had Antinori executed to preserve the family’s honor. On July 11, 1576, Pietro the cuckolded husband summoned his wife to the castle, where he strangled her with a dog leash. Reports of the murder were suppressed and it was reported she had died of a heart attack. Eleonora was buried with the full pomp and honors usually accorded a member of the Medici family in the Medici Chapel (the family mausoleum) at the Basilica di San Lorenzo. Her homicidal husband was sent from the Florentine court to the court of Spain until his own death in 1604.

Starting in 1300 this area went through a renewed period of a remarkable development thanks to the particular strategic and economic value that the Mugello Basin held for Florence. The Medici family, which originally came from this area, and the Lorenesi family made it their pride and joy by investing financial resources to strengthen their presence around Florence.

Important buildings and fortresses, castles, villas and palaces remain to testify the development of the Mugello. Moreover, even the cultural and artistic history of Florence finds elements of primary importance for its development in this area. Artists like Giotto and Beato Angelico were born here, famous architects worked at the construction of the towns of the “walled lands”, the features in the landscape of many Florentine paintings have found their inspiration here.

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Asellina’s Tavern

AN ANCIENT ROMAN TAVERN

 

In last week’s article about Lucius Verus, one of the more interesting revelations was the installation of a tavern in his home. While researching the significance of taverns and inns in ancient Rome, I stumbled upon an account of a recent archaeological excavation that unearthed an intact tavern as well as enough information to give us a glimpse into the personal life of the tavern owner.  

To better understand why Lucius Verus had a tavern installed in his home, it is necessary to know a bit more about Roman politics.  By the 1st century BC, magistrates used private games to gain support in elections.  The emperors successfully continued this practice, and the games became more and more lavish as each tried to out-do his predecessor.  Social issues were also addressed in the taverns by providing food for the poor. Like the games, the local taverns provided a platform for politicians to influence not only local residents but travelers as well. Hence, the development of the Caupona and the Taberna. 

The Caupona was a Roman inn.  Besides providing accommodation, they also offered food and drink to non-residential guests.  Cauponae were regarded as low-class establishments.  Diners ate in the open-plan communal areas in booths with masonry seats of even private dining rooms where they dined around a circular table.  Unlike when dining in polite Roman society, the did not recline, but sat upright.

A Roman inn was called not only caupona, but also taberna and taberna diversoria, or simply diversorium or deversorium.  Along all the great roads of Italy there were inns, as we see from the description which Horace gives of his journey from Rome to Brundisium, though the accommodation which they offered was generally of a poor kind. 

Eating and drinking for the poor usually meant frequenting taverns, ranging from brothels to gaming houses and everything in-between.  Gaming was popular among all classes, and included pastimes such as dice, knucklebones, and gaming counters.  Board games were played by adults as well as children.  Traditional children’s games, such as hide-and-go-seek and leap frog are depicted in Ancient Roman art.  Children’s toys have also been found. 

The Popinae

 

The houses where persons were allowed to eat and drink were usually called Popinae and not cauponae; and the keepers of them, Popae. They were principally frequented by slaves and the lower classes, and were consequently only furnished with stools to sit upon instead of couches. This description is illustrated by this painting found at Pompeii in a wine-shop, representing a drinking-scene. There are four persons sitting on stools round a tripod table. The dress of two of the figures is remarkable for the hoods, which resemble those of the capotes, worn by the Italian sailors and fishermen of the present day. They use cups made of horn instead of glasses, and from their whole appearance evidently belong to the lower orders. Above them are different sorts of eatables hung upon a row of pegs.

Asellina’s Tavern

ASELLINA'S TAVERN AS IT STANDS TODAY

In Rome, there must have been many inns to accommodate strangers, but they are hardly ever spoken of. However, we do find frequent mention of houses where wine and ready-dressed provisions were sold, and which appear to have been numerous in all parts of the city.

One such establishment has been excavated in Pompeii. Asellina’s Tavern served not only food and drink but also offered cheap accommodation. Left of the entrance were stairs to an upper floor that could have accommodated overnight guests overhead.  The upper story does not survive but the ground floor does. The façade of the exterior was plastered and covered in red and black graffiti. On the right door post of the entrance is a drawing of the god Mercury. Inside, the caupona consisted of a small room with a counter, inset with four large pottery doliae. These serving pots were found intact and in situ, as was a brazier and a lidded pot for warming wine.

Graffiti on the tavern consisted mainly of electoral posters on its façade. These posters tell us the names of the candidates for election and the offices they were standing for as well as which locals supported them. Indirectly, the graffiti also provides useful evidence regarding the tavern itself

PHALLIC GOOD LUCK CHARM

The tavern’s owner is indicated by references made in the electoral posters.  Four women associated with the tavern are named as supporting local politicians: Smyrna, whose name suggests she came from the near east, Aegle, a Greek name, Maria who could have been a Jew and Asellina herself.  As Asellina is the only Roman name, it has been assumed that she was the owner whilst the others were barmaids who were slaves or low class free workers. Various pieces of evidence found in the tavern have been used to interpret it as a caupona brothel. Phallic pottery lamps have been found as well as an inscription ‘Here Dwells Happiness’ on the doorpost . There is also a tiny piece of graffiti inscribed within the letter ‘O’ of one of the words of the electoral notices which makes reference to a patron having sexual intercourse with one of the barmaids.

PAINTING FROM A POMPEIIAN BROTHEL

This evidence does not mean necessarily mean that Asellina’s tavern was a venue for prostitution. Phallic symbols were not necessary lewd symbols to the Romans. They were common good luck charms, often found inscribed on street corners. The doorpost inscription was also possibly a charm used to ward off bad luck. While patrons may well have had sexual relationships with female staff, they could simply have been free and easy relationships rather than paying ones.

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